前言:我们精心挑选了数篇优质跨文化交际英语论文文章,供您阅读参考。期待这些文章能为您带来启发,助您在写作的道路上更上一层楼。
1、覆盖面广
国际旅游、求学、公干等项目人数剧增,出入境人数创历史新高,与去年同比增加37%。仅春节和黄金周,出境人数就赢超过150万人次。跨国公司、合资公司使外企供职和聘用外籍人士成为常态。我国经济实力的增长,承接大型的国际高峰会议,ALPC、奥林匹克运动会、上海世博会、APEC会议等,覆盖范围广,与人们的生活息息相关。
2、时代需要
跨文化交际能力与商务英语的使用,已经成为社会主流文化之一,是衡量现代人才的重要标志,它是时代的产物,应市场的需要而生,应社会的需求而发展。媒体文化、商务交流等已经成为跨文化交际的主要范畴。因为,懂英语、说英语、写英语和用英语的能力是现代人才的重要素质。英语交际能力和沟通能力是最为常见的要件,不可或缺。
二、跨文化能力视阈下的商务英语教学路径分析
1、丰富教学大纲,为跨文化交际能力正名,教学有理有据
在传统的商务英语教学中,注重学生的基本素质,侧重于英语的学习,即听说读写的能力。教材编写方面、教学内容安排、教学课程设置、以及教师给定的教学重点内容等等,皆以英语培养为主,以交流为辅,往往忽略了文化背景因素。从这个层面上讲,传统商务英语教学是落后于社会发展需求的。将跨文化能力素质提升明确纳入到商务英语教学大纲之中,提升教师的敏感性,提高学生的重视程度,从根本上给与跨文化交际能力正名,明确目标,端正认知,才能完成教材编写、课程设置、文化内涵的培养、跨文化敏锐性的训练等一系列后续问题的改变。否则只能说起来举足轻重,做起来松松垮垮,甚至无视眼中,跨文化能力只能纸上谈兵,或者沦为空谈。
2、突出文化导向,为跨文化交际能力加筹,教学有章可循
语言与文化息息相关,密不可分,语言是文化中的语言,脱离了文化,语言就只是符号。文化视阈下的语言才赋予了语言灵魂和家园。结合二者方能使二者彰显各自的特点,发挥特长。将跨文化交际能力提升到重要位置,是对商务英语教学的挑战,是革新的重要举措。语言一直在英语教学中立于不败之力,几十年的教学经验丰富,而跨文化的技巧尽管与语言有同等重要的地位,但从文化积淀和授课技巧角度而言,则远远不够。要将语言和文化合二为一,要多方借鉴,多元发展,突出文化导向,设定情景,加大商务英语训练力度,灵活多变,不断研究、丰富和实践,为跨文化交际的商务英语教学提供参考。
3、注重科学研究,为跨文化交际能力助力,教师训练有素
尽管跨文化研究起步较晚,但是由于我国投入大量的人力和物力,已经初见起色。在国际上,我国的商务英语影响力度和科研成果,远远不及美国。就亚洲而言,也与日本不可同日而语。在借鉴跨文化交际研究中,我国应该顺应时代潮流,在国际全球化的大背景下,体验商务英语技巧,建立跨文化商务英语教学模式,培养一支业务精、能力强的高素质师资队伍,是商务英语中亟待解决的问题。要创造教师境外交流的学习机会,公派年轻教师融入英语国家,感受文化、体验文化、诠释文化、传授文化。要善于挖掘中国的外教人才,为他们提供平台,以实现国际间的文化交流和差异互补。
4、功夫在诗外,为跨文化交际能力拓展,理论联系实际
国际商务活动是一种跨文化的交际活动,世界各国的经济贸易体或者交易者之间的交往都带着地区和民族的文化特色,因此,跨文化交际对商务英语翻译的影响十分显著,其影响因素主要有以下三种:首先是交际语言因素,包括词义、语序和句法结构三方面。词义方面,英语词语对上下文语境依赖性较大,含义相对广泛,词义受上下文限制,而汉语词语对上下文语境限制较小,含义较窄,相对具体、固定、严谨。如“10cans to acarton”和“Can we ship the goods in tin?”中can既可以是名词“罐子”,也可用作情态动词表示“能够”。语序方面,由于英汉语表达语序大不相同,翻译时要注意调整。如aver-age annual economic growth rate的翻译应为“年平均经济增长速度。”句法方面,英语句法结构较严谨,汉语则相对松散,主要表现在主语和谓语的使用。英语句中主语一般不可缺,谓语动词有时态、语态和语气的变化,中文则相对灵活,主语可省。如“Evidently some mistakes were made andthe goods have been wrongly delivered.”可省略主语译为主动句“很明显,出了差错,发错了货。”
其次是社会文化因素,主要体现在地域和宗教习俗差异方面。英国西临大西洋,西风从大西洋吹来,温暖和煦,因此英国有Zephyr(西风)汽车,而中国西面接壤陆地,东面临海,西风只能带来寒冷,东风才温暖,故而“东风汽车”成就中国一汽;英国是个岛国而中国是大陆国家,因此spend money like water就成了“挥金如土”。此外宗教对中西方影响都很深远,如上帝用6天创世,第7天休息,“7-up”七喜成了众所周知的饮料品牌;但由于宗教形象差异性较大,龙在东方人眼中是膜顶朝拜之物,《圣经》却将撒旦描述为agreat dragon,因此亚洲的“四小龙”译成了“fourtigers”。
最后是思维方式因素。中国人习惯螺旋形地展开叙述,喜欢用宽泛和模糊语来陈述传达信息,如“可能,基本上,有关部门,适当的”等模糊词语用来表达“可以感觉到,但不能解释的话”,让听众做出自己的理解和判断,便于说话者有更多机会纠正错误;西方人则是习惯线性思维,喜欢清晰简明的表达方式。因此在商务翻译活动中明确双方思维方式的差异性,把握尺度,翻译才会有效。如用“The jobis difficult,and we have made great certain efforts”谈论某个项目成果时,“certain efforts”为一模糊词,若要表明“工作已经产生一些影响”则应译为“we have made positive ef-forts”,国外合作伙伴就明白“哦,工作有效”。
二、商务英语翻译中跨文化交际能力的培养
(一)语言文化能力培养
语言能力培养应从词法和语法两方面进行。词法能力的提高首先从中英商务词汇积累开始,尤其是一词多义的词汇和相关专业术语,即普通商务词汇和专业商务词汇的积累。译者应广泛阅读各类型的中英文商务材料,如商务报刊、商务杂志、商务简报、商务合同等,积极参加商务活动,获得一手资料,实践中积累丰富词汇;其次要培养良好的汉语文化功底,以提高运用准确词汇进行翻译的能力。汉语文化功底的培养应从熟悉中国传统文化精髓入手,提升自身文化内涵修养,还要学习商务礼仪,掌握各类中文商务文体写作以及商务谈判和商务报告等商务活动中的典型词汇、句型和文本,提高商务素养;最后要学习掌握商务翻译常用技巧,如直译、意译、音译和增译等,结合商务英语语言特色灵活掌握常用被动句、无主句和虚拟语气等句式的翻译技巧,提高翻译效率。
语法的主要任务是描述句法结构、语义结构和二者关系,译者对语法的准确掌握有助于提高翻译准确性。语法能力的培养应充分融入各门英语课程学习中,学习者要有意识地对学习资料进行语法句法研究,以提高翻译准确性。翻译实践中要重视培养句法能力,准确分析语序和句法结构,充分理解语句内涵。如“Unless the terms or context ofthis contract otherwise provide,this contract shall be inter-preted in accordance with Schedule A,and each of theterms used herein shall have the meaning ascribed to it inSchedule A(Definition and Interpretation)or Schedule B(Special Terms)as the case may be.”首先分析句法结构,找出句子主干“contract shall be interpreted...and eachshall have the meaning...”其核心意思便一目了然,“合同应根据...解释,每一条款定义见...”,接着根据核心意思自问“合同根据什么解释?什么条款?定义在哪?”再次进行分析,就会找到“in accordance with Schedule A”,“usedherein”,“in Schedule A(Definition and Interpretation)orSchedule B(Special Terms)”,可具体为“合同应根据(条款A)的解释,(此处所用)每一条款定义见(条款A)或(条款B)”,最后结合上下文,将as the case may be译为“以适使用者为准”,整段翻译为“合同应根据条款A的解释,此处所用每一条款定义见条款A(定义和解释)或条款B(特别条款),以适使用者为准”。
(二)社会文化能力培养
中国人学习第二语言往往更注重学习语言知识,忽略文化。不同民族之间的语言交流实质上是不同民族间的文化交流,译者要平衡文化和语言二者的重要性,避免重语言轻文化的倾向,培养对英语国家文化的敏感度和洞察力。
由于文化背景不同,双方都会从各自文化角度考虑问题,从而忽视对方的文化和风俗习惯。为促进交流的圆满成功,译者在理解说话者的真实意图和掌握相关文化背景基础上,要利用增减灵活转化来提高处理文化信息的能力。如“饭菜不好,请多包涵”可译为“These are the best disheswe are able to prepare,please make yourself at home”。再如翻译时添加文字补充说明外国人不熟悉的名称和中国历史事件,例如-cultural revolution((1966~1976)),秦始皇Qin Shi Huang(First Emperor of Qin dy-nasty)(秦朝的第一个皇帝),帮助对方理解相关背景,更好地沟通交流。肢体语言是生活口语交际的补充,是使用最广泛和最丰富的表达方式,同一肢体语言行为在不同文化中含义不同,呈现的意义大不相同。如英语国家中说话时人们彼此凝视和目光交流意味着诚实;而在中国谈话时盯着对方眼睛带来傲慢,咄咄逼人的感觉,让人觉得粗鲁和不礼貌。因此,译者需观察学习肢体语言,掌握肢体语言相关知识,促进沟通交流。跨文化交际不是盲目追崇对方,而是尊重不同文化价值和习惯,促进文化融合,促进相互理解。在商业活动中,若不妥善处理国家与国家之间的文化差异,会造成摩擦和冲突,甚至影响企业合作。因此在商务英语翻译中要遵循这一国际通用规则,尊重文化差异,在不损害双方利益的基础上。
(三)思维能力培养
译者由于易受母语思维影响,翻译时习惯性套用本族语思维方式,否定翻译能比较典型地反映中西方思维差异。如将中文“我认为他不同意这项条款”译为“I think hedoesn’t agree with this clause”,译者没能正确把握中西方思维方式差异,用中式思维对译“我认为”为“I think”,应将否定放在句首,进行全部否定而非部分否定,“I don’t thinkhe agrees with this clause.”才是正确翻译。再如英译中“You can’t be too careful to handle in transit due to thegoods is fragile”应为“鉴于商品易碎,在搬运过程中,越小心越好。”而不是“鉴于商品易碎,在搬运过程中,不能太小心”。
译者要克服固定思维模式缺点,应培养其发散思维能力。首先比较英汉语思维方式,认识其共性和差异性,并在翻译、写作和口语中注意差异特征。其次阅读英文原版材料,如政治报告、科技论文的文献等,培养英语的思维习惯。还要多听、多模仿简洁、地道、典型的英语国家著名演讲材料。多听和多读有助于自我训练,培养英语思维方式,在翻译时可以模仿此类句子和表达相关,逐步意识并分辨中英表达与思维习惯的差异,潜移默化接受并使用英语思维方式,最后通过实践进行举一反三,发展独立思考能力。如“我们的价格是按照成本加运费报的,所以保险请你们自己办理。”译文可有以下几种:“Since our price is based on CFR,you have to takecare of the insurance”;“Our price is quoted on CFR basis,and consequently,the insurance is to be covered by yourselves”;“Since our price is determined on the basis of CFR,the insurance premium shall be on your account”.这几个译文都传达相同的意义,翻译时要逻辑思维清晰,灵活改变句子结构但不改变句子原意,勇于实践才能在商务翻译中获得良好的效果。
三、结语
1)推动文化教学与英语教育的整合
语言是文化的重要载体,随着当前跨地区、跨国以及跨民族交流的日益频繁,英语作为通用语言成为了国际交流中重要的工具之一。学生跨文化交际意识的培养不仅涉及到英语语言本身的知识与理论,同时也涉及到了英语文化,因此,重视推动文化教学与英语教育的整合,是提高学生跨文化交际意识的有效途径。教师在英语教育中来合理的选取英语文化内容并融入教学活动中,不仅可以让英语教学本身具有更加丰富的素材,同时能够在促进学生英语素养提高的基础上为英语教育创设良好的分为。在此方面,教师应当注意,英语文化教学内容的选取应当以学生的学习需求以及认知水平为出发点,并根据学生的学习需求以及认知水平来在不同的阶段开展具有不同侧重的教育教学活动。如在高校大一阶段,教师应当侧重于语言教学,从而确保学生具有良好的英语语言基础,而在大二以及之后的阶段,教师则应当有意识的融入英语文化教学内容,从而较好的实现文化教学与英语教育的整合。
2)在重视学生主体地位的基础上引导学生开展自主学习
在高校英语教育过程中,学生是教学活动开展的重要参与主体,无论是教学内容的选择还是教学方法和教学模式的设计,都应当以学生的英语基础和知识接收能力为出发点。在以培养学生的跨文化意识为重要教学任务的英语教育中,虽然教学的内容得到了扩展,但是高校英语的教学课时却没有响应的增加,在此背景下,教师只能够在传授给学生合理科学的学习策略与学习技巧的基础上来让学生自主的完成教学任务与教学目标,因此,为了实现学生跨文化交际意识的有效提高,教师有必要在教学过程中承认并尊重学生的主体地位,并在此基础上引导学生开展自主学习,在此过程中,教师有必要通过了解学生的学习策略、学习风格等来对学生进行有针对性的指导,从而促使学生在自主学习中对英语文化作出体验、对提高跨文化交际意识的重要性做出认识,同时推动学生英语知识的自主构建并使学生树立终身学习的英语学习观念。
3)使用多元化的教学渠道来挖掘学生潜能
随着信息技术的发展以及在社会各个领域中的广泛应用,信息技术的价值以及优势已经得到了社会各界的广泛肯定,而在高校英语教育中,通过实现英语教学和信息技术的整合,不仅能够让英语教学具有更加丰富的教学素材和更加直观、生动的教学内容呈现形式,同时能够为学生学习英语文化创造良好的条件。如通过在培养学生跨文化交际意识的过程中运用信息技术来辅助教学活动,教师可以利用网络搜索一些英语电影和英语歌曲对英语文化进行展现,这些内容可以让学生对英语文化进行亲身体验,并提升学生开展跨文化交际能力的兴趣,从而对学生的跨文化交际潜能进行有效的挖掘。
4)体验式教学与说教式教学并重
在英语教育过程中,相对于学生而言,教师在英语专业知识以及英语文化知识方面的素养优势更加明显,所以教师可以通过说教式的教学方式将自身对跨文化交际的体会讲授给学生,虽然在这种教学方式中,学生出于被动接受的地位,但是这种教学方式在培养学生跨文化交际意识方面所产生的成效是不容忽视的。另外,体验式教学也是培养学生跨文化交际意识的有效路径,在此过程中,教师可以通过组织各类参观活动或者在课堂中进行角色扮演来促使学生对英语文化进行体验,使学生在实践中不断积累知识与经验,从而让学生对英语知识以及英语文化作出更加深刻的认知。
5)引导教师对母语文化和英语文化进行对比
在汉语环境中,学生本身无论是在语言知识方面还是文化认知方面都具有着一定的思维定式,并且学生在学习英语的过程中也很少对这种思维定式做出反思,并且也经常出现将汉语语言知识和汉语文化套用到对英语语言知识和英语文化的理解中。因此,教师有必要引导学生对母语文化和英语文化作出比对,并使学生在了解文化差异的基础上深化对英语文化的认知并提升学生的跨文化交际意识与跨文化交际能力。通过引导学生对母语文化与英语文化进行比较,可以在教学过程中构建一种跨文化交际的氛围,并在提高学生学习积极性的基础上使学生对英语语言知识以及文化知识作出更加牢固的记忆。同时通过这种比较,可以让学生认识到文化是多元化的,并且文化之间并没有优劣之分,只有在承认每一种文化的合理性基础上,才能够与更好的开展跨文化交际,这不仅有利于学生跨文化交际意识以及跨文化交际能力的提升,同时能够培养学生开放且包容的文化观。
6)在认识学生差异的基础上因材施教
在高校英语教学中,包括培养学生的跨文化交际意识在内的所有教学活动都应当承认并尊重学生的个体差异性,并对学生差异性做出了解的基础上进行人才视角。由于学生生活背景、学习历程的不同,所以无论是在文化体验、思维方式还是价值观方面,每个学生都会存在差异,而这些内容恰恰又是文化教学的基础,所以在培养学生的跨文化交际意识过程中,教师有必要从学生的文化体验、思维方式以及价值观出发来对母语与英语文化作出比较,从而促进学生跨文化意识的强化。
2重视提高教师的跨文化素养
在高校英语教学过程中,高校英语教师是学生跨文化交际能力提高过程中的主要引导者,同时是连接学生与英语文化之间的桥梁,教师本身所具有的跨文化综合素质对学生跨文化交际能力的培养产生着决定性的作用,因此,作为高校英语教师,要具备强烈的跨文化意识,并重视对自身的英语文化知识结构进行完善,在充分了解母语文化与英语文化差异的基础上推动自身跨文化修养的提高。语言是文化的重要载体,如果教师与学生不能充分了解英语文化准则与英语文化模式,则将难以对英语语言专业知识作出真正的掌握。虽然当前大部分教师都对学生跨文化交际能力的培养给予了高度重视,但是由于自身欠缺跨文化素养或者欠缺跨文化教育经验,针对学生开展的跨文化交际能力培养也往往难以取得良好的教学成效。
所以,在高校英语开展跨文化教育的过程中,教师需要做到以下两点内容:一是教师有必要对自身的文化修养进行提高。作为高校英语教师,在不断丰富自身英语专业知识的基础上,有必要通过阅读英语文学作品、鉴赏优秀的英语原声电影、欣赏高雅的英语歌曲以及结交外国朋友来对英语文化作出全面深刻的了解。另外,教师要在掌握英语文化知识和文化特点的基础上具备较好的汉语文化认知与教学能力,通过在课堂教学中向学生展示汉语言文化与英语文化的差异来加深学生对英语文化的理解与认知,从而促使学生的文化洞察力以及文化敏感性得到提高,并在此基础上提高学生的跨文化交际能力;其次,在高校英语教师的跨文化素质提升过程中,高校有必要对教师的继续教育内容作出改革,从而让教师提高自身跨文化能力的提高得到进一步的拓展。在教师培训以及继续教学方面,培训内容以及继续教育内容有必要涉及到民俗学、历史、文学以及地理等多种知识,从而让教师深刻的理解英语文化产生的根源,并在此基础上对英语文化作出理解与认知。另外,在教师的培训以及继续教学方面,有必要增加多远文化教育以及跨文化教育内容。从而在使教师树立开放且包容的文化馆基础上,对英语文化进行接纳与吸收。
3解决跨文化交际能力培养过程中的阻碍
在高校英语教育中,培养学生跨文化交际能力的重要性已经得到了大部分教师的认可与支持,并且教师也愿意尝试使用多元化的教学方法来开展文化教学,从而推动学生跨文化交际能力的提高。然而当前高校英语教育中的跨文化交际能力培养在传统教育理念的影响下仍旧面临着众多阻碍,这些阻碍主要体现在以下几个方面:一是当前的高校英语教材中缺乏跨文化教学内容。虽然我国当前的高校英语教材已经在以语言知识和语言技能为核心的教材基础上做出了一些改革,但是其中所具有的跨文化教学内容依旧缺乏,这种问题主要体现在,教材内容所设计的文化内容层面较窄,并且文化信息也欠缺系统性,虽然这些内容中涉及到了较多的英美文化,但是却没有突出其他英语国家的文化,另外,语言教学内容和文化文化教学内容难以实现紧密结合也是主要的表现之一;二是高校英语教学时间限制跨文化交际能力的培养。在有限的高校英语课时中,教师不仅要完成教学任务,同时要确保学生掌握较高的英语理论知识素养和英语应用素养,所以在教学过程中,对学生理论知识以及应用技能的巩固成为了主要的教学内容,而用剩下的时间来对学生的跨文化交际能力进行培养显然是十分紧张的;三是学生的跨文化交际能力评价体系有待完善。虽然高校英语教育已经将培养学生的跨文化交际能力当做了重要的教学目标,但是由于当前高校英语教学考核评价中依然围绕考试的方法来开展,所以学生的跨文化交际能力评价体系并不完善。因此,即便是教师在培养学生的跨文化交际能力方面投入了较大的精力,但是却无法了解学生的跨文化交际能力提升到了何种层次,这让教师在下一阶段的跨文化交际能力教学中出现了依据确实的情况,从而导致教师无法有针对性的开展跨文化交际能力教学活动。针对高校英语教育跨文化交际能力培养中存在的阻碍,高校英语教师可以通过以下策略进行解决:针对高校英语教材中缺乏跨文化教学内容问题,高校可以根据自身的师资力量来进行高校英语教材的编撰,在此过程中,高校有必要组织具有较高英语专业水平和跨文化素养的教师来开展这一工作。
关键词:高职英语教学;中西文化差异;跨文化交际能力
语言教学的目的是培养学生的跨文化交际能力。“跨文化交际”(Interculturalcommunication)是指具有不同文化背景的人们之间进行的交际。
一、语言知识与语用知识并举,了解西方文化
在课堂教学中,我们一向较注重教学的内容和语言能力,即培养学生能造出一些意义正确、合乎语法规则的句子的技能。但是学生没掌握语用知识,不知道运用这些知识和技能在具体环境中用英语进行准确的跨文化交际[1]。“不懂得语言的运用规则,语法规则将变得毫无用处”(Hymes1972)。如“Whydon''''tyouopenthedoor?”是一句符合语法规则的句子,但它含有强硬的命令口气,就不适合对长辈或初交的人说这句话,可用“Whynotopenthedoor?”来表达。又如,当夸奖别人的菜做得好时不能说“Ididn’texpectyoucouldmakesuchdeliciousfood!”(没想到你能做一手好菜!),通常可说“Whatadeliciousfood!”在与外族人交谈时,本族人对于他们在语音和语法方面的错误往往比较宽容,而违反说话规则会被认为是不够礼貌的(Walfson,1989)[2]。这里的说话规则是所在语言交际活动中为了达到特定的目标,说话人和听话人之间必须存在的一种默契,一种双方交际时都遵循的“合作原则(CooperativePrinciples)”[3]。为使学生在一定的语境中能准确运用所学语言,必须语言知识与语用知识并举,才能真正了解西方文化,而高职学生就是欠缺文化背景知识。如《大学英语精读III》Unit4“LadyHermitsWhoAreDownButNotOut”的课文标题“DownButNotOut”学生很难理解。笔者先介绍美国拳击术语“downandout”,意思是拳击手被对方击倒后淘汰出局。再结合课文对“女隐士”特点的分析理解,把标题译为“潦而不倒”学生才恍然大悟。可见,不了解西方文化以及背后的文化内涵就很难理解它在特定场合中引申出的社会意义。同是这篇课文中“…ifshechoosesyourdoorwayasherplacetosleepinthenight,itisasnormallyhardtoturnherawayasitisalostdog.”这句话令人费解。狗在西方视为人类忠实的朋友,所以赶走一只丧家之犬属不道德行为。又如:“WhyITeach”一文中,很多学生不理解“Beingateacherisbeingpresentatthecreationwhentheclaybeginstobreathe”。这里的creation和clay涉及到《圣经》典故:上帝用地上的尘土clay造人,并赋予人以生命力。作者在这句话中用clay隐喻没有知识的人,用breathe比喻“获得知识,开始成长”。这个典故把教师育人和上帝造人作了类比,使我们领会到教师育人与上帝造人同样伟大[4]。学生明白这些文化及隐含意义后,终于茅塞顿开。
二、比较中西文化的差异,谨防“文化休克”
“文化休克”(Cultureshock)最早是由世界著名文化人类学家KalveroOberg在1960年首先提出的。初到国外的人往往由于不熟悉对方社会交往的信号或符号经常会有不同程度的心理焦虑反应,这种现象在跨文化学中称“文化休克”[5]。学生如果不把握中西方文化差异,用汉语的思维去理解、判断英语的语境,极易产生“文化休克”。思维方式是沟通文化与语言的桥梁,而文化差异就是思维方式的本质差异。中国传统思维方式具有女性阴柔偏向,西方思维方式具有男性阳刚偏向。中国人偏人文,西方人重自然;中国人重悟性,西方人偏理性;中国人好静、内向、守旧,西方人好动、外向、开放;中国人求同、求稳,西方人求异、求变。我们在教学中有必要把日常生活交往中英汉文化的主要差异以及语言表达方式进行归纳、比较和总结,这将有助于学生逐步区别语言的文化内涵,培养跨文化意识,增强文化差异的敏感性和适应性。
1.赞美之词
中国文化对赞美之语总是比较崇尚谦虚原则,“YourEnglishisverygood”和“Ilikeyourbeautifulwatch”之类的应答都要用“Thankyou”,因为这些赞美之词仅仅表示友好或是引起谈话的手段。
2.提供帮助
中国人对于别人的帮助往往采用“接受+感谢”的方式,在西方人们崇尚自立,会以“谢绝+解释”作回答。如回答“Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?”这样的kindoffer,通常用“No,thankyou”或“Yes,I’dloveto,butnotnow”之类的婉转回答。
3.文化禁忌
西方人一般都能容忍非本族语的人的语言错误,但对文化错误却会耿耿于怀,特别是文化禁忌。笔者把英语国家人士初次交谈的“禁忌”归纳成W-A-R-M四个字母,其中W代表weight,A代表age,R代替religion,M代表marriage,同样引出“七不问”:不问年龄、体重、收入、、婚姻状况,不问“去哪儿”和“吃了吗”。4.交际势能——把握交际讯号的强弱
西方人最常用最安全的话题是谈论天气,如“It’sreallyacoldtonight,isn’tit?Yes,itis.”这样的对话很容易使双方转入其他话题,并且能缩短会话距离,避免交际障碍。假如你碰巧遇到一家老外吃饭,主人客气地邀请你一起吃,“Wouldyouliketohavedinnerwithus?”如果你真的没吃,最好不要客气,否则挨饿的就是你自己了。
三、创设交际语境,培养跨文化语言交际能力
现代英语教学非常重视语境,建构主义理论也提倡语境化教学(Situatedinstruction)。因此教师要尽力为高职学生提供真实的或模拟的交际情景,力求创设学生能主动参与的课堂教学氛围,将学生引入一定的问题情境中。如《综合英语II》Unit7“ListeningandActivities”听说部分,为使学生了解并熟练掌握“祝愿”和“问候”的日常交际用语,我设置如下情景作为导入:Weallknowtherewillbe“AJobHunting”inourcampustomorrow.Areyouinterestedintheinvestigationonjobhunting?Howdoyougreettheinterviewers?Andhowdoyourespondtotheirreply?学生积极动脑,很快列举出许多学过“祝愿”和“问候”或“代问候”及其应答的表达。听力结束教师趁热打铁适当补充,引导大家归纳总结。接着学生在具体的场景中自编对话进行操练,做到学以致用,运用自如。
随着多媒体技术在教学中的不断应用,我们应该充分利用现代化的教学手段,使教学更加生动形象,如利用多媒体、幻灯、音像或互联网等创设良好的英语交际环境,使学生在教师、学习伙伴的帮助下,利用必要的学习材料,通过意义建构的方式获得更多的文化信息,从而提高跨文化语言交际能力,使课堂教学真正交际化。在《BEC》“Interview”这一项目设计课上,我先组织学生看一段有关招工的录像,然后提出问题引发学生思考:Whatdoyouwanttodoafteryougraduatefromtheuniversity?Whatquestionsarelikelytobeaskedinajobinterview?Whatwouldyouaskifyouweretheinterviewer?接着我用PPT设计了几种模拟招聘的具体场景,让学生申请做家教、商店促销员、收银员和导游,然后在课堂上表演。师生们从语音语调、内容设计、体态表情、语言得体和合作创新等方面进行互评。大家积极参与,表现了空前的兴趣和竞争力,体现了良好的团队合作意识。更可喜的是那些平时在课上不愿开口说英语的学生在大家的鼓励和配合下,增强了信心,消除了紧张情绪,获得了很好的锻炼机会。运用多种电教手段,创设教学情境,课堂变成了社会的缩影,学生的主体性得到了充分发挥。学生在与他人和环境的互动中勇于开口,乐于开口,在模拟情境中建构新的语言能力,从而有效地培养了学生运用英语进行跨文化交际的能力。
四、渗透中西文化,培养跨文化非语言交际能力
交际能力包括语言交际能力和非语言交际能力(Non-verbalcommunication)。非语言交际行为是指语言行为以外的所有行为。在面对面的交际中,语言至多只占整个交际过程的35%,而其余的社交信息都是依靠非语言交际传递的(Birdwhistell,1970:50)。因此非语言行为就成了跨文化交际成功与否的关键。不同文化背景的人有不同的空间观,因而导致不同的会话距离。在英国,礼貌的听者会认真地注视讲话者并不时眨一眨眼表示对对方所谈之事感兴趣,美国人则希望听者频频点头或发出哦、嗯之类的声音表示对所讲内容感兴趣。中国人则通常会眼看着对方保持安静。有位颇为出色的中国学生到一家英国公司接受最后的面试。敲门进入办公室后,学生坐下并顺手把放在经理面前的一张椅子向前拉了一下。面试后,该生自我感觉良好最终却遭拒绝,是因为英国经理事先将椅子放在他认为合适的交谈距离位置,而中国学生无意间向前一拉,将距离调整到他认为舒适的位置,可能使经理感到不适,最终导致被拒绝录取。
一种事物的特点,要跟别的事物比较才显出来(吕叔湘1977)[6]。教学中教师要善于进行中英非语言交际对照教学,如中国人用拱手和鞠躬表示感谢,英语文化的人用亲吻和拥抱表示感谢;美国人习惯用手指胸膛表示“我”,而中国人手指鼻子表示“我”的动作,在美国人看来是滑稽可笑的;美国人用手拍成年人的头表示同情、鼓励对方,中国人则认为这是有意侮辱对方;中国人气愤至极会跺脚,美国人在急不可待时才跺脚;英文化的人喜欢佩戴猫头鹰图像的徽章,因为在英文化中猫头鹰是智慧的象征,而在中国人看来猫头鹰是邪恶的化身,俗话说猫头鹰进宅无事不来,预示着凶多吉少。中国人在给人指方向时,习惯于用食指指点。在英语文化中,这是既不雅观、又不尊重别人的手势;用手下意识地摸一下鼻子,在中国人看来既无什么含义,也无伤大雅。美国人却将这一动作视为隐匿不好的想法或谎言的手势,或者表示不同意或拒绝对方的看法。
参考文献:
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论文关键词:跨文化交际;跨文化意识;大学英语教学;文化导入
1引言
随着国际交往的日益频繁.英语的重要性越来越得到人们的认可。近年来,强化学生的跨文化交际意识正逐渐为人们所重视.提高学生对目的语文化的敏感度已成为外语教学的一个目标.跨文化交际理论是与大学英语教学不可分的。甚至可以说,大学英语教学是跨文化交际理论的具体实践过程.外语教学的根本目的就是为了培养语言应用能力.实现跨文化交际.与不同文化背景的人进行交流
2跨文化交际及跨文化交际教学的必然性
2.1什么是跨文化交际
跨文化交际的英语名称是‘ntereuhuralcommunication”或“cross-culturalcommunicati0n”.它指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际.也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。一句完全合乎语法的话.用于不恰当的场合,或说得不符合说话人的身份.甚至违反当时当地的社会风俗习惯,就达不到交际的目的.有时甚至造成意想不到的后果。语言的使用规则就是这种语言所属文化的各种因素,语言是文化的一部分.并对文化起着重要作用。没有语言,就没有文化.语言与文化互相影响.互相作用。学习一门外语不仅要掌握语音、语法、词汇和习语,而且要知道说这种语言的人如何看待事物.如何观察世界;要了解他们如何用他们的语言反映他们的思想、习惯、行为;要了解他们社会的文化.这样才能够顺利地进行跨文化交流
2.2跨文化交际能力的培养在大学英语教育中具有重要意义
在英语教学中加强文化导入.培养学生的跨文化交际意识是非常重要的。大学英语教学的对象是大学生.他们更渴望在英语学习中了解英美文化在大学英语教学的各个方面和阶段注重跨文化教学既可使学生更多地了解英美文化,激发他们的学习兴趣、扩展知识面,也有利于他们对英语语言知识的掌握.
首先,从语言和文化的关系来看:语言不能脱离文化而存在,人生活在社会文化环境中
人的一切行为不可避免要受到社会文化模式的制约,语言交际行为也不例外。早在20世纪20年代。美国语言学家Sapir在Language一书中就指出:“语言有一个环境。它不能脱离文化而存在.不能脱离社会继承下来的传统和信念。”翻胡文仲也曾经指出:“语言是文化的一种表现形式。不了解英美文化,要学好英语是不可能的反过来讲,越深刻、越细致地了解所学国家的历史、文化、传统风俗习惯、生活方式以及生活细节.就越能正确理解和准确使用这个语言”。
其次,跨文化交际能力的培养是大学英语课程建设的重要内容.
2004年教育部正式颁布的《大学英语课程教学要求(试行)》中明确指出:“大学英语教学是以英语语言知识与应用技能、学习策略和跨文化交际为主要内容.以外语教学理论为指导,并集多种教学模式和教学手段为一体的教学体系。”因此,培养跨文化交际能力不可避免地成了当前外语教学界的中心话题
3大学英语教学中培养跨文化交际的原则
大学英语教师在英语教学中应当使用各种原则和措施,不断加强文化输入的力度和深度.使学生充分意识到本族语与英语及其所属文化的差异.尽量避免或消除因跨文化而引起的误解与困惑。英语教学过程中的文化导入必须遵循以下几个原则:
3.1实用性原则
实用性原则要求输入的文化内容与学生所学的语言内容密切相关,文化教学紧密结合语言交际实践。这样.不但能使学生对语言与文化关系的认识更具体、更实际.更能激发学生学习语言和文化的兴趣.产生较好的良性循环。
3_2系统性原则
在外语教学中,文化输入往往缺乏系统性。教师在讲授语言的过程中.往往是遇到一种文化现象就顺便解释一下,对于文化教学的内容和方法无统一、具体的要求。因此,教师应系统地给学生输入交际文化和知识文化.避免在文化输入过程中出现盲目性和混乱倾向.从而更好地提高学生的外语交际能力
3.3阶段性原则
阶段性原则要求文化内容的导入应遵循循序渐进的原则。根据学生的语言水平、接受和领悟能力,确定文化教学的内容,由浅入深、由简单到复杂、由现象到本质。同时在贯彻阶段性原则时.必须注意文化内容本身的层次性和一致性。不至于使教学内容显得过于零碎。外语教学在起始阶段应使学生对英语国家文化及中外文化异同有粗略的了解教学中涉及的英语国家文化及中外文化知识应与学生身边的日常生活密切相关.并能激发学生学习英语的兴趣。在英语学习的较高阶段.要通过扩大学生接触异国文化的范围,帮助学生拓宽视野.使他们提高对中外文化异同的敏感性和鉴别能力.进而提高跨文化交际能力
3.4适度性原则
外语教学中不同文化的导入.只是传统外语教学的延伸、补充和发展,而不是以其为中心。所以我们不能本末倒置.过多的文化导入不但不能起到促进语言教学的作用.反而成为学生的学习负担和阻力要根据英语教学的需要,适度地导入文化内容。如属于主流文化的内容及有广泛代表性的内容,就应该详细讲解,反复操练。还应正确处理好文化习俗和传统的来龙去脉,等等。此外,教学方法要适度.讲解的内容要有选择性,应鼓励学生自学。进行大量的课外阅读.增加文化知识的底蕴。
4大学英语教学阶段跨文化意识培养的措施与方法
英语教师在教学中要注重文化教学.即把英语国家的文化背景和文化语言习惯渗透到日常的英语教学中去.培养学生对文化差异的敏感性、宽容性及处理文化差异的灵活性.使得学生在英语的实际使用过程中能够迅速、准确、恰当地传递信息并使交流内容更加丰富。在大学英语教学中.要培养学生的跨文化意识,可以从以下三个方面人手
4.1课堂教学方面
在日常教学工作中.教师要善于优化语言教学模式.改进教学方法.提高课堂效率
4.1.1充分利用和发掘教材中所蕴含的文化背景知识 大学英语教科书中蕴含着大量的文化背景知识.现行的教材中有许多地方都出现了与文化背景知识相关的话题,只要充分挖掘其中的内涵,通过日常课堂教学随时提供和补充相关知识是完全可行的教师在讲课过程中千万不能对这些跨文化的背景知识和文化差异蜻蜓点水般地一带而过.而应结合语言知识有目的、有重点地向学生传授。例如教师可以揭示词汇的文化内涵,文化不仅影响了词汇的字面意义,也影响了词汇的引申意义因此.教师在传授词汇概念意义的同时.也要把词汇所蕴涵的文化知识传授给学生.帮助和引导学生挖掘特定文化背景下词汇的深层涵义.让他们全方位地理解和把握词汇.把词汇文化内涵融入教学中
4.1.2营造使用英语的环境或氛围 语言交际需要场景环境.如果教师脱离场景环境而孤立地进行英语教学.那么学生所学之知识则非生动之语言。因此.课堂中教师应尽可能创设接近现实生活的英语环境.有意识地把语言形式和社会语境结合.使学生更好地明白英语国家的人在什么场合说什么话.了解在交际中使用的各种行为模式以及控制这些行为的规则.使学生在实际演练中能积极地用英语思维组织语言。充分运用所掌握的语言知识、语言技能
4.1.3充分利用电教设备为学生创造语言和文化环境 现代教学手段如网络、多媒体、英美报刊杂志、幻灯机、录像机等的应用已成为必然。将这些手段有机地与课堂结合.选择和语言材料相关的背景文化知识.利用这些手段调动学生去理解文化背景知识是提高课堂教学的关键。教师和学生都应该充分利用大众传媒架起文化间的桥梁。
4.2课外教学方面
要培养学生的跨文化交际能力.仅凭课内学习是不够的.而适当的课外活动是课堂教学的扩展和补充.要创设文化氛围拓展第二课堂。为此。教师在设法改进课堂教学的同时.还应努力拓展第二课堂,积极引导学生自主学习,参与各种课外交际活动。课外引导学生大量阅读是一种学习西方文化的好办法“通过引导学生阅读大量的英语经典文学作品,积累有关的文化背景、社会习俗、社会文化关系等方面的材料。”听英语讲座、报告、广播;观看英语电影、录像;组织英语讨论、编排英语戏剧、组织表演等活动.全方位了解英语的文化知识.体会英汉两种文化的差异。
4.3加强师资培训
在文化教学中.教师不应仅仅是单纯的语言知识的传授者.而应当具有丰富的知识和能力,在不同的教学阶段扮演不同的角色。在文化教学中.教师应当是文化信息的提供者,是文化学习的示范者、引导者、启发者。是学生进行文化合作学习的伙伴文化教学对教师提出了相当高的要求.教师掌握丰富的文化知识.在教学活动中准确把握自己的身份.成功地开展文化教学.对大学英语教学中学生跨文化意识培养有着举足轻重的作用
[关键词]大学英语教学;跨文化交际;策略
在国际间交流与合作不断密切的背景之下,不同文化相互的交流与碰撞也更加频繁。语言作为文化交流与沟通的重要载体,必须在国际化、全球化的趋势下,对教学手段与方法做出适当的改进及调整。在大学英语教学过程当中,必须结合学生专业的特点,创设各种有利的条件,让学生在英语学习的过程当中尽量多的接触不同的文化,培养学生对中西方文化差异的敏感性,使跨文化交际能够顺利有效的展开。
1、跨文化交际论的内涵
大学英语教学区别于其他阶段英语教学最显著的一项特点就是英语教学从词汇、语法等角度上来说都具有非常突出的专业性特征,与学生的专业方向相契合。培养学生交际能力的教学方法必须以学生作为教学(也就是课堂)的主体,教师则作为课堂的组织者,重点调动学生在语言学习中的积极性与潜能,通过对交际活动以及交际情景进行设计的方式,将学生融入实际的交际活动当中,培养学生应用英语语言进行社会交际沟通的能力,从而达到大学阶段英语教学的最终目标。
有关交际能力内涵的阐释虽然有非常多的类型,但归纳起来仍然有一些共同之处。具体来说,语言的交际能力主要侧重以下几个方面的内容:首先是语言形式是否符合语法要求;其次是语言形式是否能够被交际双方所接受;再次是语言形式的使用是否得体妥当;最后是语言形式在交际运用中是否存在现实性问题。从现代语言功能学的角度上来说,认为语言作为一种特殊的社会现象,交际、交流是其最主要的功能之一,语言的构成包括了词汇系统、语义系统、语法系统、以及音位系统这几个方面。从这一角度上来说,在大学英语教学过程当中,引入跨文化交际论对学生语言交际能力进行培养的重点就在于:以扎实的语法基础为前提,全面提高学生语言听、说、读、写的综合能力,并且在特殊语言环境下,能够根据交际双方的社会地位、身份角色的得体的进行跨文化交流。
2、大学英语教学与跨文化交际论的关系
在大学英语教学中,学生需要将所掌握的丰富的语言材料知识正确应用于语言交际环节当中。传统意义上的语言教学侧重于语言形式,无法提高学生在真正交际环境下的语言运用能力。而在语言运用的过程当中,学生常常会忽略交际双方所处的社会文化以及语言交际环境的特殊性,在跨文化交际中出现语言应用不得体的问题。而以交际为目的的跨文化交际论则很好的解决了这一问题,其通过培养学生跨文化交际能力的方式,以满足不同文化背景人们的交流。在语言交际的学习与训练过程当中,必然会涉及到两种不同的文化形式。大学英语教学中除了需要向学生传授英语用语国家在民族文化方面的特点,掌握其在价值观、生产方式、生活、风俗、宗教、以及礼仪等多个方面的知识,同时还需要将本民族的文化内涵通过交际的方式传输出去。受到这一因素的影响,使得英语教学自然而然地涉及到的跨文化的影响与制约。大学英语教学中,学生除了需要吸收西方文化中优越的素质因素(如创造性思维,明确的目标,突出的个性,以及勇于创新的精神等),还应当尽全力摆脱只重视语言结构形式,学习目标空洞,语言交际能力差的问题,从而促进自身跨文化交际能力的不断提升。
3、大学英语中跨文化交际论的教学策略
1)课堂融入:在大学英语教学过程当中,教师可以通过课堂融入的方式引导学生学习相关文化知识。教师可以利用课前五至十分钟的时间进行练习,练习的主要内容是与英美国家相关的文化知识,特别是注意对文化差异知识的传授,然后引导学生们通过讨论的方式来比较中西方在文化上的差异性。
2)专门讲解:教师可以在大学英语教学过程当中结合教材教学内容,对涉及到文化知识的部分进行专门注释,在语言知识的教授过程当中同步进行文化知识的分析与引导,通过这种方式,能够使跨文化交际更加的灵活与有效。例如,在涉及到与英美国家历史知识相关的内容时,教师除了需要向学生介绍相关的语法语句外,还可以利用一定的时间介绍与之相关的历史事件以及历史背景,使学生能够加深认识。以新闻专业的学生英语教学为例,不同国家由于国情不同,因此在进行新闻报道时常常会出现冉的专业词汇。政治报道方面,西方国家常见单词有“Parliament(议会)”,“Congress(国会)”、“senator(议员)”等。而在对中国国内事务的报道中,常见的词汇与短语则有:“invigorate China through science end education(科教兴国)”,“place equal emphasis on materiel and spiritual civilizations(两个文明一起抓)”等等。学生在学习中必须了解这些专用词汇所代表的含义,更需要通过教师专门的讲解,了解其所对应的机构构成以及作用,以便在脑海中形成联系,加强对上下文的理解。
3)系统介绍:在大学英语教学过程当中,往往会根据专业领域的不同,开设一些与西方国家文化相关的课程。这些课程的学习能够使语言学习的中心自传统意义上的语言结构方向向语言功能方向转变,避免学生对语言形式的掌握过于孤立,而能够在社会环境中掌握语言形式的具体使用方法。
4)对比讲解:在大学英语教学中,为了能够培养学生跨文化交际的思想,还可以对中西方两种文化的差异进行对比,通过对比比较的方式引入文化特点。通过这种方式,能够使学生同时了解本民族与其他国家在风俗习惯或其他方面的差异。例如,在《冰河世纪》中,有原文为“Burn,Double burn”,如果采取直译的方式,则译为“燃烧,加倍燃烧”。但结合英语用语习惯,该俚语可以解释为“糗,太糗了”,所表达的是对某人的不尊重。这种翻译上的差异是学生必须通过跨文化交际学习而掌握的。再以新闻专业英语教学为例,英文中在表达数字概念时可以采取的表达方式非常多,而中文则以直接的方式进行表述。即中文中所表达的数字概念“75%”在英文中可以表达为“three quarters”,也可以表达为)“seventy-five percent”。除此以外,英文在日常生活中所出现的某些特殊句型也是影响英文语音转换为汉语语义的重要因素之一。即使是在所用词语在两种文化中有对应物时,也会由于思维局限性使意义的传达产生偏差。例如:It is the last straw that breaks the camel's back。在该句中,“straw”一词与汉语中的“稻草”一词相对应,而在英文中所指的则是”会使人超出承受能力的最后的事情或事物“。两者之间的联系“稻草”能联想至“最后的希望”,如“救命稻草”。
4、结束语
在新时期,大学英语教学大纲中进一步突出了交际作为语言本质功能,在语言教学中的重要意义,认为学生需要通过对所学语言知识的综合应用来表达自身思想,同时进行情感上的交流。为了能够增加学生对不同文化差异的敏感性,就需要积极改进大学英语的教学方法,采取多种教学策略来调动学生的学习积极性,引导学生有步骤,有重点,有计划的对本国以及英语国家文化知识的综合学习,促进自身知识面的扩展,使跨文化交际能够更好的在大学英语教学中实施并开展。
参考文献
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[3]高晓平.跨文化交际与英语教学关系研究[J].时代文学,2012,(15):190-191.
对语言能力的培养,语言能力是跨文化交际中必须具备的交际能力,它与语用能力以及语言策略能力共同构成了外国学者所认为的跨文化交际能力。在英语的教学过程中,英语老师应该适时适当的向学生指导语用的学习方法,以此提高学生的交际能力;语言策略能力指的是人们对语言的运用应变能力,现在很多学生学习英语,掌握英语的含义和用法已经非常的熟练,但是如果运用到生活中,在不同的语言环境下和他国的人交流就经常会出现了一些问题,这就要求老师针对这一问题,在对学生进行英语训练的时候让学生意识到应该根据不同的语言环境去学习,讲究语言应用的策略,这样的练习方法可以弥补学生词汇和语法知识缺乏的不足。这样训练学生学习英语,培养了学生的语言能力,使学生能够积极有效地去处理交流中遇见的问题,准确的传达自己的想法,从而提高学习的整体交际能力。
二、思维能力的培养
在以往的教学教法中,人们对英语学习的认识就是熟悉掌握词汇和语法,并没有考虑怎样的运用,所以培养大学英语跨文化交际能力,就应该联系他国文化,学习他国语言特色以及思维方式,加以训练,这样的学习方式有助于以后同他国人民进行交流时的实际应用,避免因为思维方式的不同,造成沟通内容上的误解,正确的思维能力是培养跨文化交际能力的前提,是良好沟通的必要保障。
三、行为能力的培养
跨文化交际能力的最终体现者就是行为能力,所以提升跨文化交际能力就不容忽视对行为能力的培养。外国人对行为能力的定义就是行为规范的理解和对行为冲突的对策的能力,培养行为能力,首先就应该了解他国的行为规范,例如:基本礼仪和文化禁忌等等,从而避免因为不了解他国文化而在交流的过程中触犯了他国的禁忌,引发不必要的矛盾和冲突;行为冲突能力就是在已经因为某些因素在交流的过程中与他人发生了争执,这个时候应该灵活的分析导致问题发生的关键因素,采用巧妙的解决方式化解尴尬的冲突局面。行为能力的培养是跨文化交流的体现者,因此,在大学英语跨文化交际能力的培养体系中应该在行为能力培养这一方面加强力度,以提升跨文化交际能力。
四、社会性发展能力的培养
关键词:跨文化交际、、时间观念、餐桌礼仪
“跨文化交际”(intercultural communication或ross-cultural communication)指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际, 也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。
如今,各国之间的交流越来越广泛,英语教学不仅是传授语言知识, 更重要的是培养学生的交际能力及应用英语进行跨文化交际的能力。交际的双方若不能进入同一文化背景之中, 就易产生不解或误解,使交际失败。
我觉得现行的九年义务中学英语新教材具有知识性以及趣味性, 教材内容贴近学生的生活实际, 容易引起学生的共鸣。教师提高学生的跨文化意识,让学生在学习语言基本知识的基础上, 学会了解所学语言国家的文化、背景、风土人情和生活方式。教师在课堂教学中, 可以进行一些“角色扮演”、“创设真实或半真实的情景”等多种形式的活动, 从而创造一种良好的学习外语的交际氛围。例如: 教材中, 打招呼的表达方式(Greetings)就有不少。“Nice to meet you!”“Nice to see you!”“How are you?”等等。教师应让学生懂得它们的使用对象, 以及使用时的时空意境。比如, 模拟这样的情景: 在外地旅游时偶然遇见一位老同学。这时, 打招呼可以用:“Hi, Jane! Nice to see you here! What a surprise!”如果学生用:“Nice to meet you!”就不够得体, 这句打招呼用语是用在初次见面时。
我认为教师在课堂教学中还应该指导学生注意主要的语用差异。现将教材中常见的有关跨文化交际教学的主要内容列举如下:
1. 称呼(Addressing)。称呼习惯方面中西习惯也不大一样。英语国家常把男士称Mr,女士称为Miss(未婚)或Mrs(已婚)。在国外,小孩可以直呼父母的名字,但在中国,小孩直呼父母、师长的名字是没有礼貌的,是不被允许的。
2. 打电话(Making telephone calls)。教师在教学中要提醒学生用常用语:"This is ××× speaking".而不是"I am ×××."说:"Is that ×××speaking?"而不说:"Are you ××× speaking?"。
3. 初次见面(Meeting someone for the first time)。在日本和韩国,人们初次见面通常是鞠躬(bow),而在美国、墨西哥则是握手(shake hands),而在巴西,人们初次见面是亲吻(kiss).(人教版 《英语(新目标)》九年级下册 Unit 12)。
4.时间观念(Sense of time)。在哥伦比亚,人们对时间观念比较随意,如果你告诉朋友你要去他们家吃饭,晚一会儿到也没关系。与家人和朋友相聚对他们来说是很重要的,通常人们就是随意去朋友家串串门,而很少预先约定去见朋友。人们常常只是去市中心逛逛,尽可能多地见些朋友。而在瑞士,守时是非常重要的,毕竟,瑞士是钟表之邦。如果有人和你约定4点钟见面,你就得4点钟赶到。即使只迟到一刻钟,对方也会不高兴。另外,拜访朋友,一定要预先电话约定,人们和朋友见面通常是有计划的,人们总是预先安排好一起娱乐或外出。(《英语(新目标)》九年级 Unit 12)
5.餐桌礼仪(Table manners)。在美国,不能直接用手吃饭,吃饭时不能发出声音,否则会被人认为是不合乎礼仪的。在巴西,每次喝东西后要用餐巾揩嘴。在日本,有时吃面条发出声音时可以的,尤其是当你吃面条时,这表明你喜欢这种食物。把筷子插到食物里是粗鲁的,不能用筷子指着别人,在吃饭时,只有父母可以说话,小孩子是不允许在餐桌上边吃边说会的。在法国,不能把面包放在盘子里,而应该把它放在桌子上。除了面包可以用手拿以外,其它食物都不能用手拿,哪怕是水果!(必须把水果切开后用叉吃),不能说“吃饱了”,这是不文雅的。如果真的吃饱了,只要说声“太好吃”就行。另外,把手放在大腿上是不雅观的,要一直把手而不是肘放在桌子上。(人教版 《英语(新目标)》九年级 Unit 12)。
关键词:英语教学;跨文化交际;能力;方法
中国英语教学长期以来一直以提高学生的语言技能为中心,在实践中也已取得了巨大的成就。但是对英语教学在培养学生语言基本技能之外的跨文化交际能力却没有给予足够的重视。中国与世界的交往日益密切,这一英语教学的大环境要求我们在英语教学中进行跨文化交际教学,提高学生的跨文化交际能力。
一、英语教学中培养跨文化交际能力的原因
英语教学之所以要注重对学生跨文化交际能力的培养是因为中西文化存在着差异。中西方文化的差异体现在生活的各个方面,比如称谓、问候、介绍、询问等各个方面。具体来讲,有以下几个方面:
1.价值观念的差异。价值观念是文化的核心,不了解一个民族的价值观念,就不会充分理解该民族的语言表达方式和行为模式,很容易造成跨文化交际中的语用失误。
2.伦理道德观念的差异。伦理道德的差异也是造成跨文化交际失误的重要原因之一。中国人习惯透明生活,个人的行为和意志常受到周围无数有形无形的制约,不太在意隐私权。相比之下,西方社会在价值观念上十分重视个人的权利与自由,重视法律上的人人平等。
3.民族习惯和思维方式的差异。民族习惯是指一民族在长期的历史发展过程中逐渐形成、反复出现并世代相习的生活方式。民族习惯生动地体现一个民族的生活习惯、行为方式、伦理观念等方面的传统特点,是构成民族文化历史的主体。民族习惯一旦产生,会对该民族成员的思想和行为产生极大的约束作用。
可见,中西文化的差异是无处不在的。所以,如果在英语教学中不注重跨文化交际的教学,在实际交往中就会出现尴尬的局面,造成交际失误,影响交际质量。
二、英语教学中导入跨文化交际教学的重要性
如前所述,中西文化在交往的各个领域都存在或多或少的差异,那么在教学中进行跨文化交际教学就十分重要了。在教学中伴以文化的导入,会使英语学习多姿多彩,能提高学生的学习兴趣。跨文化交际是发生在两个不同文化负担者之间的,所以双方只有充分了解彼此的文化,了解文化的异同,才能成功地交流。因此,在实践中,通过将语言和文化相结合,增强学生的文化差异和跨文化意识,培养学生的跨文化交际能力就十分必要。
三、如何在英语教学中培养学生的跨文化交际能力
在英语教学中,跨文化交际的教学也是有章可循的。如教师可以根据教科书上的内容讲解与其相对应的背景知识,把文化知识的介绍自始至终贯穿于整个教学活动之中;也可以用比较法,在重视所学语言国家的文化习俗的同时,引导学生学习自己的民族文化,关注不同文化的差异,从而更好地把握和运用所学的语言比较母语文化与目的语文化之间的异同,分析“同”,增强语言习得中的“正迁移”,指出“异”,防止“负迁移”,使学生充分了解母语和目标语文化的异同,在交际实践中尽可能地避免“负迁移”。教师还可利用辅助教学设备,如录像、电影等,使学生直观生动地了解英语国家的文化,增强学生对文化差异的敏感性。同时,教师还可以组织一些英语活动,如表演话剧、英语角、外教课等,尽量给学生提供能运用语言的环境,使学生在轻松愉快的气氛中学到文化知识。
此外,因为单词是英语语言的“细胞”,所以教师对学生跨文化交际意识的培养必须从单词、短语入手。单词、短语的含义常因说话人的年龄、性别、社会地位、方言、说话目的等不同而有所变化,所以在遣词造句上要注意以下情况:
1.语域。语域指在具体条件下习惯应用的语言形式。如,在与人打招呼时,何时用“How are you?”何时用“How do you do?”或“Hello!”“Good morning!”等。再如,表示女孩漂亮用“nice”,表示男孩英俊用“handsome”,要避免用错。
2.搭配。英语中有些单词搭配力强,应熟练掌握、正确理解和运用。如学到“man”就可以扩大学习policeman,postman及词组play the man 等。
3.同义词和反义词。英语单词的意义往往可以运用同义词和反义词来表达。要想尽可能地运用英语进行交际,就应该重视同义词和反义词的运用。例如,在谈到“不同的”这个概念时,如果一时忘了“different”这个词,还可用“not the same”来表达,同样可以达到交际目的。
随着中西文化交流不断扩大,跨文化交际越来越被人们所重视。不同语言、不同文化背景的人要成功地进行交流,语言是基础,而跨文化交际能力和意识更为重要。成功的跨文化交际不仅需要我们具备良好的语言能力,而且也需要了解彼此文化间的差异,增强对目的语文化的领悟力,提高社会文化能力。中只有这样,才能避免因文化差异而带来的跨文化语用失误。教师在英语教学中,应以培养学生的语言实际运用能力和跨语言交际能力为基本出发点,在实际教学中注重文化的导入,切实提高学生的能力。
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一、 在高中英语教学中逐步让学生了解一些东西方文化的差异
思维方式、文化背景不同,语言行为也会有差异。同时,它也会导致各个民族都有自己的社会礼仪,以下简单介绍高中英语教学中所涉及到的东西方风俗习惯上的差异:
1.标准称谓:讲英语的人对这些家庭成员或亲属直呼其名,有些孩子甚至用父母和祖父母的名字来称呼他们,总之,在英语中直呼其名是家庭成员或亲属之间经常使用的称呼方式。但是,在汉语中,称呼长辈家庭成员或亲属的名字是犯忌的,不能直接用名字来称呼自己的祖父母、伯、叔、婶、姨。在称陌生人时,中国人常用“同志”、“师傅”、“小姐”、“先生”等称呼语,但在英语中,用来称呼陌生人的称呼语是很少的。
2.赞语与应答:在英语国家中,人们可以赞扬自己的家人。人们经常会听到妇女赞扬自己的丈夫工作多么地努力,在事业上取得多么大的成就。妇女也会夸奖自己的孩子,说他们在学校表现如何好,在做事情时如何积极主动等。而在中国,这样做会被认为爱炫耀自己。
3.社交礼仪:英语中的“please”比汉语中的“请”用得更经常,更广泛。如:下列例句中都含有“please”一词:“Sit down,please”,“Could you please tell me the way to the nearest bank”等。汉语中使用“请”相对来说就少一些了,像“尊姓大名”、“贵府”、“令堂”等,这些词都可以用来表示尊敬。
4.禁忌:按照英语的文化习俗,任何涉及隐私或个人问题,都属于禁忌的范围,例如:年龄,收入,婚姻、政治、宗教信仰等都被认为是个人问题,不可谈论。因此,中国人在学习英语时,一定要记住在与英语国家的人进行交流时,不要将这一做法照搬到英语中使用,这一点至关重要。
以上这些都是在高中英语教学中经常出现的中西方文化的差异。作为英语教师,在教学过程中应该逐步渗透中西方文化教育,积极培养学生的跨文化意识,尽量避免中西方文化交际冲突,提高学生综合运用英语的能力。
二、 在教学中积极培养学生的跨文化能力,尽量避免中西方文化冲突
1.教师应该转变教学观念,在课堂教学中发挥主导作用。为了适应新世纪对人才培养的需要,作为一名中学英语教师,我们应该转变教学观念,从跨文化教学入手,通过西方文化的逐步渗透,逐步提高学生学习的积极性,培养他们自主学习的能力。
2.积极培养学生主动学习的好习惯。教师应引导学生养成主动学习的好习惯,开发每个学生的内在潜能,引导他们主动探究,掌握有效的学习方法,培养自学能力,形成有效的学习策略,提高自主学习的能力。
3.教师应挖掘教材,精心备好课 ,通过改进一些教学方法来提高学生学习英语的积极性和主动性,逐步培养学生的跨文化交际能力。(1)在课文教学中。高中英语教材中的阅读课文无论题材和体裁都比较广泛,其中不少就直接涉及到英语国家的文化内容。教师在进行这些课文教学时要注意挖掘这些课文的文化内涵,拓展学生的知识面。在课文教学中除了让学生了解英语国家的一些基本背景文化及介绍与课文相关的文化背景外,我认为对英语语篇模式的分析有助于加深学生对英语文化的了解。比如在进行新课标英语必修3的Unit 1 Festivals around the world课文教学时,教师在课前给学生分组布置作业,让他们通过网络、书籍、报刊等多种渠道了解不同的西方节日,第二天进行5分钟的总结交流,这样可以逐步培养学生的合作探究意识。通过对西方节日的了解,培养和提高他们的跨文化交际能力,加强对课文的理解能力。(2)在课外阅读中。跨文化背景知识的内容十分丰富,涉及到生活的各个方面,教师不可能在课堂上谈及所有相关的文化背景知识,因此指导学生进行课外阅读是个很好的补充。教学之余可向学生推荐阅读体现外国文化的英文版的文学作品简易读本,还可以引导学生读一些报刊、杂志(如英语沙龙等),同时,在闲暇之余,观看原声英文电影,看CCTV-9的英语节目等,提醒学生们通过网络,书籍,报刊等,留心积累有关中西方社会习俗以及日常交际等方面的知识。
关键词: 跨文化交际 中等职业教育 旅游英语教学
一、引言
随着改革开放的进一步深入,尤其是我国加入WTO,北京2008年奥运会的圆满落幕和上海2010年世博会的成功申办,中国的知名度日益提升,其古老而神奇的东方文化吸引越来越多的外国游客。据国家旅游局统计,2000年到2008年我国入境游客平均增长率是12.89%,以该平均增长速度和2008年为基数,预计2020年,我国入境外国游客将达到6181.25万人,中国成为一个旅游接待大国是一个必然趋势,我国经济的腾飞使更多国人走出国门的梦想得以实现。由于出入境游客的增加,对旅游人才的需求也日益迫切,中职旅游服务专业是培养旅游、饭店行业第一线劳动者,具备良好的交际能力可以使他们为客人提供更有效、周到的服务。因此,提高旅游专业学生的跨文化交际能力是中职旅游英语教师必须面对的课题。就目前情况而言,关于跨文化交际能力的论著大多从大学生层面进行研究,本文拟从中等职业旅游专业学生英语跨文化交际能力培养角度进行探讨。
二、培养中职旅游英语专业学生跨文化交际能力的重要性
1.语言文化与旅游紧密关联。
语言既是文化的载体,又是文化的组成部分,旅游是一种文化活动,旅游的过程就是文化体验的过程,语言文化与旅游紧密相连。社会语言学家认为:语言通过语音、词汇与语法等有形的东西构成语言的物质外壳,其中蕴藏着极其丰富的民族文化背景知识。语言反映文化,文化影响语言的使用和发展。“文化内涵是语言交际的具体内容,文化意识是语言交际的思维基础”。语言是文化不可分割的整体,文化通过语言起作用。社会语言学家D. Hymes于二十世纪七十年代提出了交际能力的四个参数——语法性、可行性、得体性和现实性,其中得体性和现实性就是语言使用者的社会文化能力。毋庸置疑,语言与文化是密不可分的统一体,旅游是一种人们对不同地理空间的选择、经历和体验的过程。旅行者对不同文化的好奇和追求使旅游具有“跨文化”属性,因此,旅游从本质上看是一种无形的文化活动。对游客而言,旅游从业人员是跨文化交际中重要的角色,从某种意义上来说他们是文化的传播者,好的旅游服务带给人们精神上的满足。由此看来,语言文化与旅游密切关联,随着出入境游客的增加,作为导游及饭店服务人员的后备军,中职旅游英语专业学生既要具备英语语言能力,又要了解本国及来访者国家文化,只有这样,才能担负起传承文化、服务宾客的重任。
2.培养跨文化交际意识有利于提高交际能力。
中职旅游英语专业学生未来的工作岗位是涉外导游或饭店服务人员,具备跨文化交际能力有利于提高其交际能力,从而更好地为中外宾客服务。旅游英语是专门用途英语,是涉外旅游从业人员的职业语言,是实现跨文化交际的桥梁,作为其中的一部分,中职英语教学内容“渗透”了相关的文化内涵。从以往使用的教材来看,其文化因素体现在问候、寒暄、介绍、姓名、称谓、节庆、告别、聚会、交友、宗教、感谢、饮食及风俗习惯等方面。然而从实习单位和用人单位反馈的信息看来,学生常在对外宾服务的过程中习惯性地套用汉语言文化和思维方式,主动扶老携幼,打听他人年龄、婚姻、收入、等这类西方人视为个人隐私问题,从而冒犯对方,造成交际失败。由此看来,教师应当根据中职生的具体情况,灵活运用教学方法,加强英语课程的文化导入,增强学生的跨文化交际能力培养,从而提高其交际能力。
3.培养跨文化交际能力有助于学生未来发展。
跨文化交际能力是涉外交际成功的基础,具备这一能力对学生未来的发展具有重要意义。旅游专业中职生的未来职业特点决定了提高其跨文化交际能力对其择业、就业及未来发展起积极的促进作用。目前,大多数中职生初中毕业后就读于职业学校,文化水平较为薄弱,毕业后学历不占优势,就业面临巨大压力。在严峻的就业形势下,如果具备较好的语言水平和交际能力,学生在择业面试中就会有足够的信心去应对面临的机遇和挑战,从而占据先机,在众多的求职者中脱颖而出,率先找到自己的岗位。在工作中,良好的跨文化交际和沟通能力也会使学生在服务客人时从容不迫,提高服务质量和效率。因此,中职旅游专业学生具有跨文化交际能力有益于其自信心的培养和服务能力的提高,从而促进其事业发展。
三、培养旅游中职生跨文化交际能力的途径
1.转变观念,注重跨文化交际能力培养。
观念决定意识,只有在思想上重视跨文化交际能力培养,教师才能自觉地将文化教育贯彻教学过程的始终。与过去比较,我国英语教学已经迈出了“哑巴”英语的误区,比较重视英语口语训练,这一做法为旅游英语的学习打下良好的基础。然而,根据实习和用人单位反馈的信息,中职学生在服务过程中因对文化知识的缺失而使交际失败的情况时有发生,因此,教师应该把教学思想从“语言本位”转变为“语言应用本位”,在教授语言知识的同时,引导学生注重文化知识的摄入,因为教师思想上的重视是提高学生跨文化交际能力的重要保证。
2.选择符合职业特点和学生情况的教材。
摘 要
近年来,随着我国改革开放的发展和我国与国际间的经济、科技、文化交流日益频繁,人们越来越重视外国文化问题。同时,我们也逐渐认识到了了解外国文化在对外交往中的重要性。在教育领域中,外语教学也渐渐重视对学生交际能力的培养。然而,对许多老师而言,文化教学还是一个较新的概念,从跨文化角度对英语教学进行研究探讨在目前还是个新领域。我们必须认识到交际能力的培养是外语教学的主要目标,培养学生跨文化交际的技能是中学外语教学要达到的一个目标。文化教学在中学英语教学中的重要性不可忽视,英语学习者不了解英语国家的文化,就无法获得交际能力。因此在中学英语口语教学中应该目标明确地,循序渐进地,方法得当地导入文化教学,使英语学习者在学习语言和知识的同时受到文化的熏陶,在跨文化交际中游刃有余。
关键词: 跨文化交际;文化教学;中学英语口语教学
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords:Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1. Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33% (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33% (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67% ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29% 31.65% 2.04% 6.02%
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35% 69.39% 13.26% 0.00%
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90% 53.06% 2.04% 0.00%
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00% 48.98% 1.02% 0.00%
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80% 60.20% 0.00% 0.00%
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88% 91.94%
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33% 98.98%
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67% 97.96%
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29% 61.22% 21.43% 3.06%
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43% 66.33% 11.22% 1.02%
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04% 7.14% 71.43% 19.39%
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51% 63.27% 9.18% 2.04%
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning,not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities, and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
诚 信 承 诺
我谨在此承诺:本人所写的毕业论文《论中学英语口语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养》均系本人独立完成,没有抄袭行为,凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料,均作了注释,若有不实,后果由本人承担。
承诺人(签名):
关键词:跨文化交际;汉语教学;理论;实践;影响
在21世纪全球化的背景下,不同民族、不同文化之间都有着碰撞、摩擦乃至对立、冲突。随着我国对外开放程度逐步深入,与其他国家、民族、文化等各个方面的交往与日俱增,外来文化元素与我们的生活习惯、生活方式差异明显,在跨文化交际中难免会出现文化冲突。在跨文化交际中如何客观看待不同文化背景的人们的文化差异,克服交际中的潜在问题,提高跨文化交际能力日趋重要。跨文化交际研究的主要是不同文化之间的文化差异,而常出现的文化差异主要在于时间观念、客套语、餐饮习俗、隐私问题、称谓用语等方面。
一、时间观念差异对汉语国际教育课堂管理的影响
西方人以及学习西方文明的人们对时间的观念和概念很精确,守时被认为是一种美德。而中国人对时间的观念比较模糊。在日常生活中处处可见此类差异,在西方无论是拜访朋友或是赶赴约会,都会提前安排并计划,事先通知和约定,并按时赴约。而且会在拜访见面之前说明目的,商定好准确的会见时间、地点。而中国是属于多向时间习惯的国家,对时间观念并不明确,具有随意性的特点。拜访朋友或者赶赴约会等等事项的约见时间并不是固定在某时某分,而是准备了时间提前量,赴约的时间是一个时间段,而不是时间点。在这方面,双方都认为互不适应,西方人认为中国人不守时,不信守承诺;中国人认为西方人做事太死板,缺乏灵活性。
课堂管理是汉语国际教育的重要组成部分,有效的课堂管理需要时间的规约。不同的时间观念可能导致课堂管理的无序,因此,在汉语国际教育中,我们需要与学生达成一致的时间规约,以便更好地管理课堂,把握课时节奏。
二、中国式客套话对中国文化教学的影响
受中国传统封建制度和传统儒家思想的影响,推崇“天人合一”的哲学理念的中国人注重谦虚,视谦虚为一种美德,推崇“贬自己尊人”的为人处世准则,遵循“上下有义,贵贱有分,长幼有序”的原则。因此,在汉语中有大量的敬语和谦词,在与交往时,对待长辈或上级时要用敬语,如:“您”,“先生”,“部长”等敬语,否则会被认为失礼;谈及自己时要用谦语,否则会被视为有失礼节、没有礼貌。当收到别人的赞美或夸奖时,中国人往往倾向于不接受或者不正面接受,常使用谦虚的话来回答,有时还会加以适当的自贬意义,比如说:“哪里,哪里……”,“我做得还不够好”,“过奖,过奖……”,“不敢当”等客套话。
在餐饮习俗方面,热情好客是中国的传统美德,这一点在餐饮习俗上尽显无疑,中国人宴客吃饭,菜式丰富、待客热情。主人会提前预备丰盛的佳肴招待客人,但还会谦虚地说“没准备什么好菜”,“招待不周” 之类的客套话;席间,主人会主动给客人夹菜、敬酒敬烟,整个饭桌一直热热闹闹,饭后,会询问客人是否吃饱、吃好,还会自贬地说“招待不周,没让您吃好”。传统习俗中甚至还有“忍嘴待客”的说法,宁愿主人少吃一些也要招待好客人,唯恐怠慢了客人,尽显主人好客热情之道。
语言文化差异提醒我们必须重视汉语教学内容的针对性,尤其是要增加交际性内容,创设交际环境,让学生真正体会汉语日常交际用语中所蕴含的谦虚的文化心理,从而避免因文化差异而造成的误解。
三、隐私问题对维护师生关系的影响
在隐私问上,中国文化是群体主义取向,所以强调人的社会的一面超过了个人的一面。而西方文化是个人主义取向,强调人的个人一面超过社会的一面。中国人认为个人要归属于集体,讲求相互关心,因此常常愿意了解别人的酸甜苦辣,乐于共同分担,替别人排忧解难,使人感到温暖、宽慰,人情味十足。而西方人坚持独立的自我观,在交际中比较注重个人空间、个人权力和个人隐私。年龄、家庭出身、工作单位、收入情况、婚姻状况、家庭关系、、私人友谊等方面都是个人的隐私范畴,既不愿意向别人提及自己的私事,也不愿意受到别人的评价和干涉。在中国人看来不去主动关心朋友所发生的事情,不去共同分担的朋友太过冷漠和冷淡,没有人情味;而在西方人看来主动了解朋友的事情,探听隐私共同讨论是对他人的不尊重,侵犯了他人的独立空间。
在推动汉语国际教育事业发展的今天,我们需要处理好与教学对象之间的关系。其中尊重他人的隐私是我们特别要注意的。跨文化交际的这些研究成果告诉我们建立平等互信的人际关系是发展汉语国际教育事业的所必须的。
小结
不同文化背景之间的差异必然造成跨文化交际的冲突,国际汉语教育的发展与跨文化交际密不可分。不论是时间观念的差异对课堂管理的影响,还是中国式客套话对汉语言教学的影响,归根结底都是跨文化差异对汉语国际教育的影响,因此,我们必须运用好现有的跨文化交际理论更好地指导对外汉语教学事业的发展。本文只是从现有的跨文化交际的几个方面的理论展开了初步地探讨,系统的指导方法仍需不断深入研究。
参考文献:
[1]刘询,对外汉语教育学引论,北京语言文化大学出版社,2007.8.
关键词:大学英语教学 跨文化交际能力 策略
一、引言
近年来,随着改革开放的不断深入,中国在国际事务中扮演着日益重要的角色,因此对具有较高跨文化交际能力的人才的需求量与日俱增。“跨文化交际”(intercultural communication 或cross -cultural communication)不仅指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际,也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。不同民族由于自然地理环境、历史背景和的差异形成了千差万别的文化。他们的价值观念、风俗习惯、思维方式及道德标准都存在差异,因而各自的语言环境产生了不同的语言习惯、社会文化、风土人情等诸语境因素。在交流中,如果人们总是用自己的说话方式来解释对方的话语,就可能对对方的话语做出不准确的推论,从而产生冲突和障碍。因此不了解文化在交际过程中会不可避免地遇到文化障碍,甚至造成文化休克。
二、语言和文化的关系
语言和文化的关系十分密切。语言是文化的载体,文化是语言所承载的内容。语言不仅仅是一套符号系统,人们的言语表现形式要受语言赖以存在的社会习俗、生活方式、行为方式、价值观念、思维方式、、民族心理等的制约和影响。人类用语言创造了文化,文化反过来又促进人类社会的发展,同时也丰富了语言的表达方式。自古以来,人类社会积累下来的文化遗产给语言打下了深刻的烙印。语言是人类社会文化中的语言,与人类社会的文化息息相关。一个民族的语言必然承载着这个民族的文化和所有的社会生活经验,反映了该民族文化的重要特征。
长期以来有种错误观念,认为学习英语只要掌握了语音、语法、词汇便可以毫无障碍地阅读和交际了。这种认识的偏差造成了针对英语文化而进行的教学的严重滞后。毫无疑问,语言基本功的掌握是非常必要的,但同时我们也应明白,学习一门语言的最终目的是为了实现跨文化交际。不懂得文化比语言更重要,那所犯文化错误就会比语法错误更严重[1]。在教学活动中,不仅应对学生语言基本功的培养给予足够的重视,而且要使学生对所学语言国家的文化有所了解,能依据话题、语境、文化背景恰当地运用语言。不了解一个民族的文化,就难以真正掌握一个民族的语言。因此在大学英语教学中进行英语国家文化知识的传授,对学生熟练掌握和应用英语就显得至关重要。这就需要我们重视文化教学,培养学生的跨文化交际能力。
三、当前大学生跨文化交际能力的现状及分析
听、说、读、写、译等几项基本语言技能是我国英语教学多年来强调的重点。然而很多学生虽然掌握了一定的语音、语法和词汇方面的知识,也具备了相当的听、说、读、写、译的能力,但在真实的语言交际中却不能用英语深入、灵活、有效地表达思想和理解对方,从而出现了一定的交际障碍。从高永晨[2]对苏州大学03级非英语专业学生所做的跨文化交际能力现状的调查中可以看出,当代大学生的跨文化交际能力不容乐观。在掌握相关跨文化交际知识方面,有60%的被调查者“没有读过相关书籍,不太了解”;在对西方交际习俗的了解上,近一半的学生(48.9%)表示“不了解”;在初次接到外国人电话时,有37.5%的被试者“心理压力很大,怕无法沟通”,而对于影响其在跨文化交际中积极主动交往的原因,有四成的被调查者(42%)选择的是“跨文化交际能力不强”。分析这一调查结果,笔者认为主要是由于多年来我国大学英语教学内容和重点的偏差所导致的。
长期以来,很多高校将大学英语四、六级通过率作为英语教学质量的评估标准之一;作为教师定级、定岗、评定职称的条件;作为学生获得学位、毕业证书的必备条件。迫使教师和学生围绕其指挥棒转,迫使学生的英语知识的框架结构与其相契合。教学中偏重语法和句法及语言交际,忽视文化因素以及非语言交际。以我校为例,多数英语教师在教学中采取如下顺序:学生预习――老师逐句讲解课文――语法分析和词汇练习――完成课文后的练习。相当一部分教师讲解时局限于讲授语言点,重点集中在辨析词义、分析语法结构、解释疑难句等语言的结构层次方面,而对于文化背景知识及其与语言结构层次的结合,或是由于自身缺乏了解、知识面不够广博;或认为其对于提高考试成绩关系不大,因而在教学中对文化背景知识一带而过。就学生而言,为提高考试成绩,多数学生大部分时间和精力都花在记单词和分析句子结构上,而对大量学习西方文化和跨文化知识重视不够。尤其是理工科学生,由于专业课程的影响,他们对英语国家的语言文化、宗教习俗、风土人情及政治制度等方面的知识知之甚少,从而严重影响了他们应用语言从事跨文化交际的能力。
四、提高大学生跨文化交际能力的基本策略
在大学英语教学中,教师必须把语言知识的传授和文化知识的传递有机地结合起来[3],使学生掌握正确的语
言知识,并能应用语言根据不同的语境要求进行交际,达到跨文化交际的目的。为实现这一目标,笔者认为应从以下几点着手:
(一)提高教师的跨文化交际素质
教师是实现跨文化交际能力培养的关键[4]。英语教师的素质直接影响到学生跨文化交际能力培养的效果。许多英语教师在传授语言知识、讲解语法结构方面很擅长,但涉及到跨文化交际能力时,常常会感到自身文化知识不够丰富,因而对英语语言文化教学有畏难情绪。因此,在可能的情况下,英语教师应到国外进修学习,亲临所学语言的民族文化氛围之中,亲身感受英美国家的语言与文化差异。另外,还可以聘请一些国外英语专家对英语教师进行培训。出国培训、文化讲座、学术交流等多种方式,有助于教师对英语语言与文化的了解和掌握,提高教师自身语言能力和跨文化交际能力。
(二)营造跨文化交际氛围
创设跨文化交际氛围,使学生在一种自然真实或模拟真实的语境中学习语言,直接感受语言的交际用途,把语言的学习和运用有机地结合起来,有助于学生转变长期形成的由本民族思维方式和认知模式带来的思维定势的影响,在多元文化交流和沟通中形成自觉的文化移情和文化认同。因此在教学中,教师应改变传统教学方法,重视情景教学,使课堂成为学生们运用英语思维和训练综合技能的场所,成为充满动感的交际场所。要实现这一目的,教师在课堂上除讲授外还可采用问题解决、调查研究、案例分析、问题讨论等多种方式[5-7]。使学生畅所欲言,将所学知识与实际运用相结合。教师还可根据教学需要设计一些交际活动,虚拟一些交际场合,让学生从简单的生活交际过渡到复杂的社会交际。设定话题让学生进行情景对话,或进行角色表演并结合课文内容穿行这样的训练,使学生更快掌握语言知识,积累交际经验,进而提高其跨文化交际能力。
(三)引导学生进行广泛的课外阅读
进入21世纪以来,我国许多高校更新了教材,新教材较以往无论是在内容还是在形式上都焕然一新。一些全新的开放式的话题引入了教材,在一定程度上激发了学生学习的兴趣。例如,《新视野大学英语》第一册的第四、第六和第七单元,《大学体验英语》中每单元都开设“文化沙龙”等等。较之于以前的《大学英语》教材,在文化背景知识介绍方面都有明显量的增加和在教材中的突出强调。例如《大学体验英语》在特色说明中指出:“重视跨文化教学,培养跨文化意识。注意语言材料和文化内容的融合,注意中西文化背景的结合。教材中的文化沙龙模块,使学生在休闲中轻松学习、了解和借鉴西方文化的精髓。”但比较各种版本的英语教材,我们会发现每册书只有8-12个单元不等,涉及的话题有限,每单元同一话题的阅读文章2-4篇,如此有限的阅读量显然不能满足在大学四年甚至两年里就要掌握一定跨文化交流能力的学生的需求,扩大阅读量势在必行。因此教师应引导学生加强课外阅读,广泛涉猎英美文学作品和英语报刊杂志,并促使他们在阅读时留心积累有关文化背景、社会风俗等方面的知识。文学作品及报刊杂志所包含的文化信息不但涵盖面广,而且独具特色,是提高跨文化交际能力的好教材。
(四)选用一定比例的国外原版教材
一些英美国家的原版教材采用了不少涉及英美文化背景及风俗习惯的材料,有极其丰富的内容。其鲜明的特点就是“文化渗透”,即在教材中逐步介绍西方文化背景知识,让学生了解英语文化和汉语文化的差异,增强其跨文化意识。书中有些对话也是研究文化差异的极好素材,它能够揭示文化的各个方面,应引导学生进行模仿,以提高他们准确使用语言的能力。
(五)充分利用现代化教学手段
目前大部分高等院校都配有先进的语言实验室,要充分利用多媒体、计算机、电影、电视、CD光盘等直观教具。电影及一些专门介绍社会风情的记录片对学生了解文化背景十分有益。大部分电影或电视的内容本身就是某个文化侧面的缩影,而且电影中提供的场合很多,语言材料非常丰富,学生在观赏节目的同时能够直观地学习语言,观察不同演员的姿态、表情、动作等非语言的东西,这些也有助于提高学生的跨文化交际能力。
五、结论
语言与文化并存,英语教学中语言知识和文化知识缺一不可。脱离文化的语言教学将导致学生交际的失败。大学英语教师在传授语言知识的同时,还应当从宏观的角度多层次、多渠道地传授目的语的文化知识,时刻提醒学生文化差异的存在,教会学生透过语言层面去领悟文化内涵,最终使学生获得一种强烈的文化洞察力和跨文化意识。需要指出的是,“文化是动态系统(dynamic system),并非存在于真空之中,而是易于变化的”[8]。因此语言教学还应该紧跟时代的步伐,展现给学生鲜活的语言与文化。我们现在正处于一个多元文化的时代,各国家、各民族之间的交往越来越频繁,不同的习俗、不同的文化在经过碰撞后又相互融合、相互借鉴。而语言也是随着社会的发展而发生变化的,所以,我们应以辩证和发展的态度来看待和学习语言,正如语言学家韩礼德所教导:应该教活的、使用中的语言。
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关键词:语言;中西方;差异
中图分类号:H31 文献标识码:A
文章编号:1009-0118(2012)09-0398-01
《大学英语课程教学要求》中明确提出了“大学英语课程不仅是一门语言基础课程,也是拓宽知识、了解世界文化的素质教育课程,兼有工具性和人文性。因此,设计大学英语课程时也应当充分考虑对学生的文化素质培养和国际文化知识的传授”。
在众多的英语语言现象中,英语谚语有着鲜明的特点,在一定程度上体现了中西文化的差异;了解并掌握一些英语谚语,也能够一定程度上保证跨文化交际的顺利进行。在这一部分的语言教学中,作者经常采用专题讲座的形式,为学生进行文化差异的对比,以增强学生的跨文化交际能力。
一、使学生理解中西方不同的历史背景
英国是人类历史上第一个进行资本主义工业革命的国家,为了发展资本主义,英国进行了“羊吃人”的圈地运动,阶级压迫严重,因而英语谚语中有很多反映了被压迫、被剥削阶级不满的声音,如:
The king and pope,the lion and wolf.国王、教皇都是狮子豺狼。
The pleasure of the mighty are the tears of the poor.豪富出,穷人泪成河。
同时资本主义社会生产力发展速度加快,创造了灿烂的物质文明,使人们认识到了商品贸易的重要性。不少人开始崇拜金钱,唯利是图。英语谚语在这些方面也有贴切的反映,例如:
Money can buy the devil himself.金钱能买通鬼神。
Money is the best lawyer.金钱是最出色的律师。
另一方面在资本主义“文艺复兴”运动后,人们的思想获得了很大的解放,认识到了自由、平等、教育等的重要性。英语有很多谚语反映了这一方面,如:
Better be a free bird than a captive king.宁做自由鸟,不做囚中王。
Freedom and liberty are better worth than all the gold of the world.自由和解放胜过世上所有黄金。
而在中国,由于经历了数千年的封建社会,其腐朽在中国表现得淋漓尽致,统治阶级如狼似虎,使人民受尽了剥削压迫之苦。汉语谚语对这些历史背景有很多的映射,例如:
衙门自古向南开,有理无钱莫进来。
只许州官放火,不许百姓点灯。
另一方面,人民也不甘惨遭压迫而奋力抗争,因此产生了与之相关的谚语,如:
舍得一身剐,敢把皇帝拉下马。
手提三尺龙泉剑,不斩奸邪誓不休。
二、使学生理解中西方的习俗差异
英汉习俗差异是多方面的,这里举“对狗不同的态度”这一视角,说明这一问题。狗在汉语文化中是一种卑微的动物。汉语中与狗有关的习语大都含有贬意,例如“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”等。尽管近些年由于人们生活水平的不断提高,饲养宠物狗的人数大大增加,似乎狗的“地位”有所改变,但狗的贬义形象却深深地留在汉语言文化中。而在英语国家,狗被认为是人类最忠诚的朋友。英语中有关狗的习语除了一部分因受其他语言的影响而含有贬义外,大部分都没有贬义。在英语习语中,常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为。如You are a lucky dog (你是一个幸运儿),Every dog has his day(凡人皆有得意日),Old dog will not learn new tricks(老人学不了新东西),sick as a dog(病的厉害),dog tired(累极了)等等。
三、使学生理解中西方的的差异
英国人大都信奉基督教,人们信奉上帝、天堂、魔鬼、地狱等说法,因而英语中有许多反映这些的谚语,比如:
Better go to heaven in rags than to the hell in embroidery.宁穿破衣进天国,不着锦衣下地狱。
God on his tongue,and the devil in his heart.舌尖上挂着上帝,心理窝藏着魔鬼。
在基督教中人们相信耶酥是星期五被钉死在十字架上的,因此基督教徒中流行如下谚语:
Friday is an unhealthy day.星期五是个不吉利的日子。
与英语国家不同,中国流行的是佛教,汉语中许多谚语映射出佛教的思想:
做一天和尚撞一天钟。
放下屠刀,立地成佛。
四、使学生了解中西方人心理素质的差异
由于各民族认识世界和改造世界的方法不同,各自独特的心理素质也不尽相同。心理素质差异是区分民族的重要标志。不同民族心理素质形成了不同的文化特色。作为文化特色的一个缩影,从谚语中可以看出不同民族的不同的心理素质。如:An Englishman is never happy but when he is miserable,a Scotchman never at home but when he is abroad,and an Irishman never at peace but when he is fighting(英格兰人在艰难困苦时反倒高兴,苏格兰人在国外时才觉得自在,爱尔兰人则只有战斗时才心平气和),此谚语不无幽默地道出了英国三个民族的不同性格。